The Science of Motivation®

A New Way of Thinking About People

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The Pleasure Principle 01. The Pleasure Principle

Many psychologists have assumed that human behavior is guided by the desire to feel good, or what can be called the “Pleasure Principle.” According to this principle, what people want above all is to maximize their pleasure and to minimize their pain.

The Pleasure Principle is evident in psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and social psychology. Freud’s construct of libido is basically a variant of this principle. The behaviorist view of motivation as reward and punishment is transparently similar to the Pleasure Principle. Social psychologists have defined intrinsic motivation as pleasure inherent to the performance of certain behaviors.

After being diagnosed with a life-threatening autoimmune disorder in 1995, Professor Steven Reiss started thinking about what was important to him – what made his life meaningful – what motivated his behavior. His subsequent study of the field of motivation led him to question the validity of the Pleasure Principle. Realizing that the field lacked a valid measure, he decided to develop a comprehensive, standardized assessment of what motivates us.

 
If pleasure and pain do not drive our behavior, what does?

- Professor Steven Reiss

 

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Scientific Identification of the 16 Basic Desires of Human Nature 02. Scientific Identification of the 16 Basic Desires of Human Nature

Previous motivation theorists based their lists of motives on observations of humans and animals, interviews with people, and the stories individuals told about ambiguous pictures. Not surprisingly, these methods produced different lists of motives because the methods were not scientific.

Professor Reiss decided to ask people what goals matter to them. The initial draft of the questionnaire included more than 500 items reflecting every imaginable goal that might motivate someone. After paring this list to 328 items by eliminating redundancies, he conducted a series of studies with four separate samples of subjects in which he used a statistical technique called factor analysis to interpret the data. Along with another study led by graduate student Susan M. Havercamp, the end result of the research was 16 scales, each comprised of eight items, that defined the universal goals motivating each of us.

acceptance

Acceptance

the desire for positive self-regard

curiosity

Curiosity

the desire for understanding

eating

Eating

the desire to consume food

family

Family

the desire to raise children and spend time with siblings

honor

Honor

the desire for upright character

idealism

Idealism

the desire for social justice

independence

Independence

the desire for self-reliance

order

Order

the desire for structure and stability

physical-activity

Physical Activity

the desire for muscle exercise

power

Power

the desire for influence of will

romance

Romance

the desire for sex

saving

Saving

the desire to collect things

social-contact

Social Contact

the desire for companionship with peers

status

Status

the desire for respect based on social standing

tranquility

Tranquility

the desire to avoid experiencing anxiety and pain

vengeance

Vengeance

the desire to confront those who frustrate or offend us

What makes the 16 basic desires unique is that Reiss did not start with preconceived ideas about the universal goals that motivate people. Instead, he empirically discovered the 16 basic desires based on what 7,800 individuals from diverse backgrounds, multiple countries, and various continents said about what drives their behavior.

Since the basic desires can be observed in animals and are evident in people from multiple cultures, it is likely they have a genetic origin. Accordingly, we tend to have the same basic goals throughout our lives. Curious children usually become curious adults, and adolescents who like to organize often continue to enjoy organizing in adulthood.

Of course, culture and upbringing play a role in the expression of the basic desires. For example, people everywhere are motivated by hunger and power, but they differ widely in the food they eat and in the ambitions they pursue. Specific desires may be encouraged or suppressed in some cultures or families. Two teachers may encourage their children to start reading at an early age, while two athletes may encourage participation in sports.

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Comprehensiveness of the 16 Basic Desires 03. Comprehensiveness of the 16 Basic Desires

According to Professor Reiss, all psychologically important motives express one of the basic desires or two or more of the desires acting in compound. Sensuality, for example, is motivated by a compound of the basic desires for Romance and Eating.

Where is the desire for wealth? The desire for money is part of the basic desire for Status. Mathematical analysis of responses from thousands of people showed a strong statistical congruity between the pursuit of wealth and the valuation of social status.

Where is the desire for survival? The 16 basic desires include motives for survival such as the desires for Eating, Physical Activity, and Order (which includes cleanliness), but not a separate motive for survival itself. In Reiss’s view, although survival is a consequence of satisfying the basic desires for Eating and Physical Activity, survival by itself is not a common psychological goal that motivates specific behaviors in daily life.

Where is the desire for attention? According to Reiss, attention seeking is not a single motive. Rather, it falls under different motives depending on what it is we want others to notice. Seeking attention for wealth or social standing falls under the basic desire for Status; seeking attention for achievement falls under the basic desire for Power; and seeking attention for one’s appearance falls under the basic desire for Romance.

Some psychologists have suggested that the pursuit of happiness is our most important motive. In Reiss’s view, happiness is pursued indirectly. 

Where is the desire for happiness? Some psychologists have suggested that the pursuit of happiness is our most important motive. In Reiss’s view, happiness is pursued indirectly. To find happiness, you must aim to satisfy your most intense desires, and happiness will be experienced as a consequence.

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Five Characteristics of a Basic Desire 04. Five Characteristics of a Basic Desire

  1. Universal Goals. The aim of each basic desire is a goal common to everyone and deeply rooted in human nature. The goal of the basic desire for Acceptance is the avoidance of failure, criticism, and rejection. The goal of the basic desire for Idealism is justice.
  1. Life Motives. Satiation of a basic desire is always temporary. Hours or days after a basic desire is satisfied, it reasserts itself and influences our behavior anew. When we satisfy our desire for physical exercise by running a mile, we again experience the desire for muscle movement in the next day or two. Since basic desires can be satisfied only temporarily, they motivate us throughout our lifespan.
  1. Intrinsic Motivation. People pursue their basic desires for no reason other than that is what they want. The basic desire for Order motivates us to organize our lives because we intrinsically value structure, not because we are trying to impress others with our organizational skills.

The aim of each basic desire is a goal common to everyone and deeply rooted in human nature.

  1. Core Values. Individuals vary significantly in how much value they place on each of the 16 basic desires. For example, athletes with a strong desire for Physical Activity typically place significantly higher value on fitness than does the average person, while intellectuals with a strong desire for Curiosity typically place higher value on theoretical ideas than does the average person. Basic desires and core values are closely connected: We want what we value, and we value what we want. Individuals who value a sense of belonging want to socialize a lot, and people who want to socialize a lot value a sense of belonging.
  1. Psychological Significance. A motive must have psychological significance to be considered a basic desire. Thirst, for example, was excluded as a motive because it has little relevance for personality and relationships. Eating, on the other hand, is a basic desire due to its cultural relevance, the effort people put forth in preparing and consuming food, and its impact on health. Although many religions have dietary laws, few – if any – have laws governing how people should drink water.
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How Motives and Traits are Connected 05. How Motives and Traits are Connected

While previous motivational theorists spoke in general terms of motivation and personality, Professor Reiss was the first to devise a conceptual platform that connects motives to specific traits. According to Reiss, intensity of motivation is central to understanding the development of personality traits.

In the theory of 16 basic desires, each desire is viewed as a continuum of motivation, and each individual is postulated to have an optimal level of happiness with regard to the continuum. For the motive of Social Contact, for example, the continuum ranges from wanting to be alone all of the time to wanting to socialize for all of one’s waking hours. To achieve an optimal level of social contact, the individual develops habits to regulate his experiences toward his desired amount of socialization with peers.

Reiss assumed that it is relatively easy to satisfy average desires because society is geared to meet our average needs. In the example of the motive for Social Contact, a person with an average striving for this basic desire does not need to develop special habits to regulate his experiences toward an average amount of socialization. Individuals with either a strong or a weak desire for Social Contact, however, must acquire habits that will help them to satisfy their extreme needs. Someone who wants to spend a lot of time with peers will need to develop such habits as hosting frequent parties and actively participating in several clubs – habits that become associated with the personality traits of friendly and outgoing. Someone who wants to spend a lot of time alone will need to develop such habits as declining party invitations and engaging in solitary hobbies – habits that become associated with the personality traits of serious and private.

According to Reiss, basic desires (intrinsic motives) have two aspects:

  • What is wanted, called the intrinsically valued goal

“Want is wanted” is the universal in human motivation. We all want the same 16 goals: acceptance, understanding, sustenance, offspring, character, justice, freedom, structure, muscle exercise, competence, sex, preparedness, belonging, respect, safety, and victory.

  • How much is wanted, called the satiating intensity

“How much is wanted” is the particular in human motivation. Our differing satiating intensities for each of the basic desires are what make us individuals. A person with a high satiating intensity for Order develops the trait of “organized,” while a person with a low satiating intensity for Order develops the trait of “spontaneous.”

Reiss’s research identified the 16 universal goals we all want. The Reiss Motivation Profile® is a standardized psychological test that reveals an individual’s satiating intensity for each of the 16 basic desires, and it is these unique satiating intensities that influence the development of the individual’s personality traits.

 
Everybody wants the same things but not to the same degree.

- Professor Steven Reiss

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Traits Motivated by the 16 Basic Desires 06. Traits Motivated by the 16 Basic Desires

The following brief descriptions of the connections between strong and weak basic desires, on the one hand, and personality traits, on the other hand, are supported by scientific studies that established the validity of the RMP.

Acceptance

The basic desire for Acceptance is the desire for positive self-regard. It motivates people to avoid criticism and rejection. It also motivates evaluation anxiety. Acceptance is the basic desire most relevant to self-esteem. It is about being valued for who we are.

People with a strong desire for Acceptance lack self-confidence. They are unusually sensitive to failure, criticism, and rejection. Typical personality traits include insecure, self-doubting, inconsistent, and pessimistic.

People with a weak desire for Acceptance are self-confident. Since they tend to view failure as a temporary setback, they remain secure in their ability to achieve their goals. Typical personality traits include confident, self-assured, and optimistic.

Curiosity

The basic desire for Curiosity is the desire for understanding.

People with a strong desire for Curiosity value theoretical knowledge and ideas, regardless of their practical relevance. They embrace intellectual pursuits such as thinking, reading, writing, and conversing. Typical personality traits include intellectual, inquisitive, analytical, and reflective.

People with a weak desire for Curiosity dislike intellectual activity. They tend to become frustrated if required to think for a sustained period of time. Typical personality traits include nonintellectual, practical, and action-oriented.

Eating

The basic desire for Eating is the desire to consume food.

People with a strong desire for Eating have hearty appetites. They enjoy many different kinds of food, are eager to try new foods from different cultures, and spend considerable time thinking about their next meal. Typical personality traits include overeater, voracious, and gluttonous.

People with a weak desire for Eating exhibit little interest in food. Since they derive such little enjoyment from eating, they tend to eat much less than does the average person. Typical personality traits include fussy eater, light eater, and eats sparingly.

Family

The basic desire for Family is the desire to raise one’s children. It motivates people to spend time with their children and to place their children’s needs before their own. It also motivates the desire to spend time with siblings.

People with a strong desire for Family place great value on parenthood and are exceptionally attentive to their family’s needs. Indeed, raising children is essential to their happiness. Typical personality traits include motherly, fatherly, nurturing, and family-oriented.

People with a weak desire for Family view the duties of parenthood as burdensome. They may not want to have children, and if they do have children, they may spend little time raising them. Typical personality traits include childless, uninvolved parent, and absentee parent.

Honor

The basic desire for Honor is the desire for upright character. It motivates people to embrace moral codes of conduct, to be loyal to their parents as well as other ancestors, and to take pride in their ethnic heritage.

People with a strong desire for Honor place great value on personal character, moral codes, and ethical principles. They do their duty even when this involves personal sacrifice. Typical personality traits include honest, loyal, dependable, trustworthy, principled, and conscientious.

People with a weak desire for Honor place great value on expedience. They act out of self-interest, looking for opportunities that benefit them personally and bending the rules to get ahead. Typical personality traits include expedient and opportunistic.

Idealism

The basic desire for Idealism is the desire for social justice. It motivates people to become involved in social causes, pay attention to current events, and support charities.

People with a strong desire for Idealism place great value on fairness, equality, and helping others. They are concerned with the welfare of humanity as a whole, not just with those who live in their own community or country. Typical personality traits include altruistic, compassionate, humanitarian, fair, and philanthropic.

People with a weak desire for Idealism are focused on events in their own lives rather than on issues that affect society. They accept the world for what it is, thinking that efforts to address social inequality are unlikely to be successful. Typical personality traits include realistic, hard-nosed, uninvolved, and pragmatic.

Independence

The basic desire for Independence is the desire for self-reliance. It motivates people to value their personal freedom and to make their own decisions. It also motivates attitudes toward individuality, or how important it is to the person to stand out as an individual.

People with a strong desire for Independence are self-reliant. They place great value on their personal freedom and on their individuality. Typical personality traits include autonomous, independent, self-reliant, unconventional, stubborn, and proud.

People with a weak desire for Independence are comfortable trusting others to meet their needs. They welcome psychological support particularly when making decisions, and they dislike displays of individuality. Typical personality traits include interdependent, humble, and team player.

Order

The basic desire for Order is the desire for structure and stability. It motivates people to plan, schedule, and organize.

People with a strong desire for Order are organized. They value preparation, planning, and precision. Typical personality traits include orderly, prepared, thorough, precise, methodical, careful, neat, and punctual.

People with a weak desire for Order are flexible. They prefer spontaneity and improvisation to organizing and planning. Typical personality traits include flexible, spontaneous, dislikes planning, tardy, and sloppy.

Physical Activity

The basic desire for Physical Activity is the desire for muscle exercise. It motivates people to engage in physically vigorous activities such as sports.

People with a strong desire for Physical Activity seek an active lifestyle. They enjoy exercising on a regular basis and usually play one or more sports. Typical personality traits include active, energetic, athletic, physical, fit, and vital.

People with a weak desire for Physical Activity prefer a sedentary lifestyle. Their natural inclination is to conserve energy in their everyday lives. Typical personality traits include inactive, sedentary, lethargic, listless, and lackadaisical.

Power

The basic desire for Power is the desire for influence of will. Power drives hard work, determination, and the need for achievement. It also can motivate the desire for leadership.

People with a strong desire for Power value competence, productivity, and excellence. They work hard to accomplish their goals and may assume leadership roles. Typical personality traits include ambitious, assertive, hardworking, and determined.

People with a weak desire for Power dislike self-assertion. Since they value work-life balance, they tend to pursue goals that are less challenging. Typical personality traits include easygoing, laid-back, and nonassertive.

Romance

The basic desire for Romance is the desire for sex. It motivates people to care about their physical appearance and to pursue potential sex partners.  

People with a strong desire for Romance seek an active sex life. They often think about sex and tend to spend a significant amount of time finding romantic partners. Typical personality traits include romantic, amorous, flirtatious, passionate, and promiscuous.

People with a weak desire for Romance spend little time pursuing sex. They rarely think about sex and tend to be slow to notice romantic cues given by others. Typical personality traits include chaste, celibate, Platonic, and puritanical.

Saving

The basic desire for Saving is the desire to collect things. Saving influences how well people take care of the things they own as well as their attitudes toward spending.

People with a strong desire for Saving are collectors. They generally value frugality and devalue wastefulness. Typical personality traits include collector, saver, frugal, and thrifty.

People with a weak desire for Saving are not motivated to collect things. They tend to use things and then dispose of them. Typical personality traits include wasteful, spendthrift, profligate, and extravagant.

Social Contact

The basic desire for Social Contact is the desire for companionship with peers.

People with a strong desire for Social Contact are friendly. They take a strong interest in others, tend to develop excellent interpersonal skills, and seek an active social life. Typical personality traits include affable, cheerful, outgoing, extroverted, gregarious, warm, playful, and sociable.

People with a weak desire for Social Contact enjoy solitude. They value their privacy, prefer interacting with a few close friends rather than socializing with many casual acquaintances, and usually are in a serious mood. Typical personality traits include private, serious, aloof, introverted, distant, detached, and reserved.

Status

The basic desire for Status is the desire for respect based on social standing. It motivates people to value wealth, fame, and prestige.

People with a strong desire for Status like to feel important. They often embrace materialistic values and may choose a profession based on its perceived level of prestige. Typical personality traits include formal, materialistic, proud, patrician, and dignified.

People with a weak desire for Status are unimpressed with high society, wealth, and fame. They often reject materialistic values and thus do not care about acquiring symbols of wealth. Typical personality traits include informal, egalitarian, casual, down-to-earth, and humble.

Tranquility

The basic desire for Tranquility is the desire to avoid experiencing anxiety and pain. This desire influences attitudes toward safety, danger, adventure, and risk.

People with a strong desire for Tranquility place a high value on their personal safety. They generally are cautious individuals who avoid risk and dislike adventure. Typical personality traits include fearful, anxious, apprehensive, cautious, timid, and worrier.

People with a weak desire for Tranquility are risk takers. They may be fearless, have a high capacity for handling stress, and enjoy activities that provide excitement and adventure. Typical personality traits include brave, calm, fearless, risk-taker, relaxed, and adventurous.

Vengeance

The basic desire for Vengeance is the desire to confront those who frustrate or offend us. Common provocations are threats to your status, your territory, or your children; competition for resources; strange or unfamiliar people; and aggressive behavior by others. The desire for Vengeance motivates the competitive spirit.

People with a strong desire for Vengeance are quick to confront others. They are highly competitive, place great value on winning, and often compare themselves to others. Typical personality traits include competitive, aggressive, argumentative, combative, and pugnacious.

People with a weak desire for Vengeance are motivated to avoid conflict. They are peacemakers who value cooperation over competition and who dislike comparing themselves to others. Typical personality traits include cooperative, peacemaker, kind, and nonaggressive.

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How Basic Desires Play Out in Relationships 07. How Basic Desires Play Out in Relationships

Professor Reiss’s theory of 16 basic desires has significant implications for relationships. When used with two people in a relationship, the Reiss Motivation Profile® assesses their compatibility – that is, the similar values that bind them as well as the opposing values that tend to result in repeated quarrels. The relationship can be between any two people – for example, supervisor-employee, coach-athlete, parent-child, or romantic partners.

In the theory of 16 basic desires, four principles explain compatibility in long-term relationships:

  • Principle of Bonding: People bond to those with similar values.
  • Principle of Separation: People separate from those with opposite values.
  • Principle of Self-hugging: Self-hugging is the natural tendency to think our values are best, not just for us, but potentially for everyone.
  • Principle of Everyday Tyranny: We try to impose our values on others, thinking it is for their own good.
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What People Think of Each Other 08. What People Think of Each Other

For basic desires on which two people are matched – that is, both have a strong need for the desire, or both have a weak need, the individuals share the same value, tend to understand each other, and generally think positively about one another. For basic desires on which two people are mismatched – that is, one has a strong need for the desire while the other has a weak need, the individuals have opposing values, tend to misunderstand each other, and generally think negatively about one another.

The following are the typical implications for matched and mismatched desires in a relationship between two people:

Acceptance

Matched on a strong need: Both are insecure and understand each other’s need for encouragement.

Matched on a weak need: Both are self-confident and understand each other's need to pursue their dreams without being overly concerned about the possibility of failure.

Mismatched: The insecure person may think the self-confident person is arrogant or conceited, while the self-confident individual may think the insecure individual requires too much reassurance. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by frequent quarrels about whether or not to engage in activities that pose a risk of failure, criticism, or rejection.

Curiosity

Matched on a strong need: Both are intellectuals who understand each other’s enjoyment of thinking.

Matched on a weak need: Both are practical and understand each other’s dislike of thinking.

Mismatched: The intellectual may think the practical person is boring, while the practical individual may think the intellectual is too nerdy. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about the difficulty of understanding each other, the amount of time that should be spent talking about theoretical ideas, and/or the importance of education.

Eating

Matched on a strong need: Both are hearty eaters who understand each other’s focus on food.

Matched on a weak need: Both are light eaters who understand each other’s lack of interest in food.

Mismatched: The hearty eater may think the light eater is denying himself pleasure and would be happier if he ate more, while the light eater may think the hearty eater lacks self-discipline and would be happier if he ate less. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about meals, weight, and/or self-control.

Family

Matched on a strong need: Both are family-oriented and understand each other’s need to spend significant time with their children and/or siblings.

Matched on a weak need: Both are nonfamily-oriented and understand each other’s desire to avoid too much family time.

Mismatched: The family-oriented person may think the nonfamily-oriented person is selfish and is missing out on one of life's greatest joys, while the nonfamily-oriented individual may think the family-oriented individual is too tied down and would be happier if free to live life to its fullest without the responsibilities of parenthood. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about having children, raising them, and/or time spent away from home.

Honor

Matched on a strong need: Both are conscientious and understand each other’s need to behave in accordance with a moral code.

Matched on a weak need: Both are expedient and understand each other’s need to act out of self-interest.

Mismatched: The conscientious person may think the expedient person is self-serving and lacks character, while the expedient individual may think the conscientious individual is righteous and only follows the rules out of fear of being caught. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about integrity, loyalty, and/or responsibility.

Idealism

Matched on a strong need: Both are idealists who understand each other’s focus on social justice.

Matched on a weak need: Both are realists who understand each other’s lack of interest in social causes.

Mismatched: The idealist may think the realist lacks compassion and would have a richer life if he were to become more involved in helping others, while the realist may think the idealist is a dreamer whose efforts to improve society are likely to fail despite good intentions. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about social causes, charitable works, and/or fairness.

Independence

Matched on a strong need: Both are independent and understand each other’s need for self-reliance.

Matched on a weak need: Both are interdependent and understand each other’s need for support.

Mismatched: The independent person may think the interdependent person is immature and would be happier if he were less reliant on others, while the interdependent individual may think the independent individual is stubborn or afraid of intimacy. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about issues of emotional support and/or stubbornness.

Order

Matched on a strong need: Both are organized and understand each other’s need for structure and stability.

Matched on a weak need: Both are flexible and understand each other’s need for spontaneity.

Mismatched: The organized person may think the flexible person is scattered and inefficient, while the flexible individual may think the organized individual is mired in trivia. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about issues such as cleanliness, neatness, punctuality, organization, and/or spontaneity.

Physical Activity

Matched on a strong need: Both are active and understand each other’s need for physical exertion.

Matched on a weak need: Both are inactive and understand each other’s preference for a sedentary lifestyle.

Mismatched: The active person may think the inactive person is physically lazy and would be happier if he were more fit, while the inactive individual may think the active individual is overdoing his physical exertion and would be happier if he exercised less. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about issues related to fitness and the amount of time spent working out or playing sports.

Power

Matched on a strong need: Both are willful and understand each other’s need for achievement.

Matched on a weak need: Both are nondirective and understand each other’s preference for work-life balance.

Mismatched: The willful person may think the nondirective person lacks ambition and would be happier if he worked harder, while the nondirective individual may think the willful individual is a workaholic who would be happier if he devoted more time to leisurely pursuits. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about issues related to control and/or work-life balance.

Romance

Matched on a strong need: Both are romantic and understand each other’s need for sex.

Matched on a weak need: Both are non-romantic and understand each other’s lower-than-average need for sex.

Mismatched: The romantic person may think the non-romantic person would be happier if he had a more active sex life, while the non-romantic individual may think the romantic individual is oversexed. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about how often to have sex.

Saving

Matched on a strong need: Both are savers who understand each other’s need to collect things.

Matched on a weak need: Both are spenders who understand each other’s preference not to collect things.

Mismatched: The saver may think the spender is wasteful and would be happier if he took better care of his possessions and spent money more wisely, while the spender may think the saver is a miser who would be happier if he spent more money to live a comfortable life. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about how to care for possessions and/or how much money to spend.

Social Contact

Matched on a strong need: Both are sociable and understand each other’s need for companionship with peers.

Matched on a weak need: Both are private and understand each other’s need for solitude.

Mismatched: The sociable person may think the private person is too serious and would be happier with a richer social life, while the private individual may think the sociable individual is superficial and should be more serious about life. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about how much time to spend socializing.

Status

Matched on a strong need: Both are formal and understand each other’s need for status.

Matched on a weak need: Both are informal and understand each other’s belief in egalitarianism.

Mismatched: The formal person may think the informal person is unimportant and can be ignored, while informal individual may think the formal individual is condescending and has a tendency to exaggerate his importance. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about lifestyle issues such as where to live, with whom to associate, and/or what to buy.

Tranquility

Matched on a strong need: Both are cautious and understand each other’s need for safety.

Matched on a weak need: Both are risk takers and understand each other’s need for excitement.

Mismatched: The cautious person may think the risk taker is reckless and underestimates his exposure to danger, while the risk taker may think the cautious individual is too timid and would be happier with a more exciting lifestyle. Since the conflict is one of core values, the relationship may be characterized by repeated quarrels about how much focus should be placed on issues of safety.

Vengeance

Matched on a strong need: Both are warriors who understand each other’s need for vindication.

Matched on a weak need: Both are peacemakers who understand each other’s need to avoid conflict.

Mismatched: The warrior may think the peacemaker is naïve and weak, while the peacemaker may think the warrior does not consider the consequences of his behavior. The relationship may be characterized by a tendency for differences to be resolved in favor of the warrior because the warrior is willing to engage in confrontation while the peacemaker is not. 

 
Mismatched desires on the RMP motivate conflicts of core values.

- Professor Steven Reiss 

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Reliability of the Reiss Motivation Profile® 09. Reliability of the Reiss Motivation Profile®

Reliability refers to the degree to which a test produces stable and consistent results. Two common ways to assess the reliability of a test are test-retest and internal consistency. Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of results when the same test is repeated on the same sample of subjects at different points in time. Internal consistency refers to the degree to which each item on a scale measures the same construct.

Test-Retest Reliability

Two separate studies assessed the test-retest reliability of the RMP. In Study 1, the subjects completed the questionnaire on two occasions with a time interval of two weeks. Based on a significance level of p < .01, Pearson product moment coefficients for the scales ranged from .80 to .96, with a mean of .83. In Study 2, the RMP was administered to each subject on two occasions four weeks apart. Pearson product-moment correlations ranged from .69 to .88, with a mean of .80. According to commonly-accepted statistical standards, these results indicated the RMP has “good” test-retest reliability. In other words, respondents’ RMP results are likely to remain stable and consistent over time.

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Internal Consistency

The internal consistency of the RMP was assessed in a third study, in which confirmatory factor analysis of the subjects’ data provided evidence for a robust factor structure. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .74 to .92, with a median of .82, which is considered to be “good” internal consistency. That is, the eight items on each of the scales were found to measure the same construct.

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Validity of the Reiss Motivation Profile® 10. Validity of the Reiss Motivation Profile®

Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it was designed to measure. Concurrent validity and criterion validity are two common methods used to assess the validity of a test. Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which a test’s scales are positively correlated to similar scales on other assessments. Criterion validity refers to the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome. Data for the concurrent and criterion validity of the RMP have been reported for each of the 16 scales. Examples are described below for selected scales.


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Acceptance

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Acceptance scale is positively correlated with the Big Five Neuroticism scale. Both scales measure traits such as insecurity, self-doubting, and pessimistic.

  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Acceptance is associated with inconsistent effort due to a fear of failure. It was predicted that low-achieving high school students would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Curiosity

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Curiosity scale is positively correlated with the Big Five Openness to Experience scale. Both scales measure traits such as inquisitive and reflective.
  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Curiosity is associated with enjoyment of intellectual pursuits. It was predicted that philosophers would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Honor

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Honor scale is positively correlated with the Big Five Conscientiousness scale. Both scales measure traits such as responsible, trustworthy, and self-disciplined.
  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Honor is associated with a desire to behave in accordance with a Code of Conduct. It was predicted that ROTC military officers would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Idealism

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Idealism scale is positively associated with the Big Five Agreeableness scale. Both scales measure traits such as altruistic, compassionate, and generous.
  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Idealism is associated with a desire to help the downtrodden. It was predicted that community volunteers would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Power

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Power scale is positively associated with the Dominance scale on the Personality Research Form. Both scales measure traits such as assertive and controlling.
  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Power is associated with a desire for leadership. It was predicted that ROTC military officers would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Social Contact

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Social Contact scale is positively correlated with MBTI Extraversion. Both scales measure traits such as friendly, outgoing, and gregarious.
  • Criterion validity: A strong need for Social Contact is associated with a desire for social interactions. It was predicted that members of fraternities and sororities would score above average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.

Vengeance

  • Concurrent validity: The RMP Vengeance scale is positively correlated with the Negative Affect Scale. Both scales measure traits such as angry, confrontational, and jealous. 
  • Criterion validity: A weak need for Vengeance is associated with a desire for cooperation. It was predicted that Protestant seminary students would score below average on this basic desire, a prediction that was confirmed.
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Norms for the Reiss Motivation Profile® 11. Norms for the Reiss Motivation Profile®

While the initial norms from 2007 included 7,800 respondents, two subsequent re-normings completed in 2012 and 2017 were comprised of about 45,000 and 80,000 respondents, respectively. The most recent re-norming in 2022 was based on data collected from 135,807 individuals including 61,065 females (45%) and 74,732 males (55%). The test takers, who ranged in age from 12 to 99 (mean = 37), represent 159 countries across six continents (all except Antarctica). Seven countries had enough respondents to allow the creation of statistically valid norms: Austria, Finland, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the USA.

The current data analysis reaffirmed the findings of the re-norming conducted in 2017 with regard to gender differences in RMP scores. On average, women scored significantly higher than men for Acceptance and Beauty, while men scored significantly higher than women for Physical Activity, Power, and Romance. In other words, females generally attach greater importance to the needs for self-affirmation and aesthetic experiences. Males, on the other hand, generally place greater importance on the needs for physical exercise, achievement, and sex.

Consistent with previous data analyses, the current re-norming did not demonstrate a relationship between age of a respondent and a given motive.

Additional data analysis of generational cohorts showed no significant differences for any of the motives between the average scores of Boomers I, Boomers II, Generation X, and Millennials. That is, the findings suggest individuals from these generations generally share similar values.

For Generation Z, however, six motives were found to differentiate this generation from the other four generations: Curiosity, Eating, Family, Saving, Tranquility, and Vengeance. Compared to earlier generations, GenZers scored significantly higher, on average, for the basic desires of Eating, Saving, Tranquility, and Vengeance. They also scored significantly lower, on average, for Curiosity and Family. These results indicate GenZers attach greater importance to the needs for food, collecting, safety, and revenge while attaching lower importance to the needs for intellectual thought and family life, as compared to individuals from four previous generations.

In summary, current norms for the Reiss Motivation Profile® are based on 135,807 respondents who completed the test between 2007 and 2022. Statistical analysis of the data revealed differences across gender, country of residence, and generational cohort. Thus, separate norms were constructed for men and women, residents of countries with sufficient numbers of test takers, and members of Generation Z.

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Summary 12. Summary

The Reiss Motivation Profile® is a comprehensive, standardized measure of what motivates an individual. It was developed empirically, passed stringent peer review for publication in scientific journals, and has been validated by independent researchers. Numerous studies have provided evidence for the reliability and validity of each of the 16 RMP scales. In short, the Reiss Motivation Profile® is The Science of Motivation®.